Plastics and Art

Dr. P. Alexandridis

Friday, April 06, 2001

Caroline Bunnell

Kar-Chan Choong

Crystal Hou

There is no single definition of art, the idea of defining art of so remote today. Someone defines art as the use of skills and imagination in creation of aesthetic objects, environment, or experiences that can be shared with other. Art usually more than an ordinary moment in life, usually stirring some kind of emotion that the artist feels and hopefully the viewer will feel. This is the purpose and beauty of art, all forms of art. Because we are all different, we see different things and feel different things. But the keyword is feel, the emotion, the ability to represent, which is the art.

Plastics are defined as synthetic polymers. Polymer is a long chain molecule that is composed of a large number of repeating units of identical structure, commonly called monomers. The dictionary defines plastic as a material “capable of being molded or of receiving form. Such a definition is much too simple to cover the variety of plastic materials available today. The definition is based merely on a transient property plastic has during the process of manufacture; it does not take into consideration of specific properties of the numerous synthetic material. It is a commercial rather than a scientific term.

Plastics are one of humanities’ greatest triumphs in modify our environment to meet our needs. This history of plastics goes back to 1868, when celluloid[1] was first made as a substitute for the ivory used in billiard balls, progress was relative slow until 1920’s. Since then, more new plastics were discovery to meet our fantastically diversified and specialized demand. Each year, plastics are made enough to supply every person in the country with twenty pounds!

The new plastics’ strange potential is bound to change traditional demands and innovations that the substance requires. These new materials are capable to go beyond the capacity of other substances. In a process, plastic is shaped depends on the qualities and uses. Many of the plastics can be rolled and pressed into sheet, or molded into foam under pressure. Plastic objects can be cast by method resembling those used with glass or metal. The unique characteristic and process of plastic could give any complex shape but yet durable and inexpensive. Some plastic can be made into foam with twice the cushioning effect of foam rubber without a surface covering needed. Simply spraying a plastic layer on the appropriate part of a metal frame can make a comfortable chair. They are easy to handle and the have many more assets when appropriately selected and used. Many are surprisingly durable, light in weight, pleasant to handle and not scratch easily. The color usually is integral with the plastic, it does not wear off or fade with proper care. However, each plastic has its limitations as well as its strengths.

Designing in plastics is a challenge, mainly because the materials themselves have so little intrinsic character and can be made to do anything. Although new plastics are synthesized for specific purpose, they may eventually used in other context, for example, to make sculptures. More complex and ingenious combinations of polymers with other polymers, fibers, ceramics and metals are producing materials with novel properties that designers, architects, engineers and artists can exploit in new designs and applications. In the following report, plastics as art medium in sculpture, architecture, modern paints and decorative art will be focused.

After 1950s, the first semi-synthetic plastics were developed response to the increasing expense and rarity of natural plastic material such as horn and tortoiseshell, as well as other decorative material like jet, ivory and amber. As substitute materials, early semi-synthetic plastics followed the form and the use of the material they were emulating and were used almost exclusively for decorative purpose.

Vulcanite[2], Parkesine and shellac were the earliest plastics used in decorative art. Due to the extraordinary naturally dark color of Vulcanite and shellac, they were often used as a substitute for jet. Parkesine, which is colorful, was used with painted appliqué or with inlaid precious metals or mother-of-pearl, mainly for jewelers, buttons, fountain pens and handles. Union cases are frames for carrying the heavy glass 19-century photographs; most of them were made by shellac because of its ability to reproduce the fine detail of the intricately moulded pictorial scenes.

In the late 1860s, celluloid was created to replace ivory. Most of the time, celluloid was manufactured for utilitarian objects such as billiard balls and detachable collars and cuffs. It could also simulate horn, bone, tortoiseshell, coral and mother-of-pearl. As a result, it was used to make highly decorative art objects like boxes, jewelers and combs. The simulated effects could be done by hand-paint decoration on celluloid. In 1920s, a hand-cut celluloid comb could be more valuable than a comb make from any other material.

Bakelite[3] and Beetle[4] were both introduced after 1920s, initially used in electrical and engineering industries due to their extraordinary strength and electrical insulating properties. However because of the natural dark color of Bakelite and the simulated effect of wood grain that was achieved by using fillers a new use was found and it began to be used in a decorative capacity as a substitute for real wood in radio cabinets. A more colorful and glossy effect was achieved with Bakelite by not using fillers however it was found to be somewhat more brittle. It was used in jewelry and American radio cabinets.

A significant example of Italian product design was presented in a 1940 exhibit in Milan at V II Triennalle this was a Phonola radio set (1938) made from Bakelite and designed by Livio Castiglione (1911-71) and Pier Giacomo Castiglione (1913-68). Beetle was used extensively for kitchen and tableware because of its chemical stability and lighter colors.

Urea-thiourea formaldehyde and even more decorative plastic, a precursor of Beetle was used for tableware. By molding with a sprinkling of color powder a mottled effect was achieved to imitate marble, alabaster and stone.

During the World War Two there was an increase in plastic research aimed primarily at technological, electrical and engineering industries. Many sophisticated types of plastic were developed at this time but the decorative uses were limited. However, several plastics were used in a decorative capacity. The best known is melamine[5], which was used in tableware and laminates also Nylon and Polythene[6]. Advances in plastic technology in 1960s enabled designers to develop new shapes in product design and furniture in particular chairs and mass productions.

Recently, plastics began to be used for their own intrinsic qualities rather than as substitute for other materials. The most commonly used plastics were polyurethane, ABS[7], acrylic and polyvinyl chloride[8] (PVC) were used by designers such as Caroline Broadhead[9] and Peter Chang[10] to create product, clothes and jewelers with foam shape and glossy ‘wet look’.

Plastics are also used in architecture. Before the1940’s, plastic were not widely used in architecture due to the misconception of plastic are ersatz materials mainly used or cheap products. The lack of experiences in the building industry and the chemical composition made architects and clients suspicious of their longevity. Plastics now are extensively used as an adjunct to traditional building materials, for example for improving protective coatings such as paints, providing light weight and flexible fittings for electrical and plumbing systems. Plastics are also widely used as insulation for masonry and as more effective weather proofing sealants, gaskets and damp-proof membranes for floors and roofs.

As cost of traditional building materials such as metal and timber increased during 1940s, plastics demand was greater increased. They were mainly used in fencing, wall and ceiling claddings, joinery moldings and gutters. Laminated sandwich panels, often with foam plastic cores, are constructed with plastic to provide strength, insulation and lightness. High-strength molded panels of plastic reinforced with glass fiber are used for larger wall and roof components, both structural and non-load bearing because of their characteristic of easily shaped and the ability of providing rigidity in sculpture forms.

In expensive architectural, transparent acrylic or scratch-resistant polycarbonate sheeting is used. The material can be heat-formed to curve and other shapes to increase rigidity. It is widely used as an alternative to glass in roof glazing, it lightness and resistance to breakage offering considerable design opportunities. One of the examples is the external escalator tube at the Centre Georges Pompidou (1977), Paris[11], which are formed from clear plastic panels shaped into curves. IBM Pavilion[12] is another well known architectural designed by Renzo Piano’s Building workshop, in which the strength of formed polycarbonate is cleverly exploited. Curve balloon shapes made from acrylic panels were used within the geodesic. Synthetic fabrics made from nylons, polyester or glass fiber coated with PVC or neoprene have been used to create dramatic tension structures especially seen in the work of Frei Otto[13]. The latter comprise either single later, air-supported membranes that require a constant input of air to maintain internal pressure, or tubular, ribbed air-inflated structure. For example, Fuji pavilion[14] Expo 70 in Osaka.

A more radical use of plastics in architecture is their potential to construct entire building from foam sprayed on to mould. However there are disadvantages remain, mainly the flammability and degradation of plastic and unavoidable environmental concern as energy used and pollution in manufacturing process. With the rapidly expanding of study in material science, plastic is potentially as an alternative material to replace the expensive traditional building material with its own unique freedom of expression.

Another use of plastics in art is in sculpture. The some of the reasons for its use its include versatility, light weight, and low cost. Some of the materials used in sculpture are polyester resin, Styrofoam (polystyrene), acrylic (methyl-methacrylate), epoxy, and polyurethane.

Polyester resin is manufactured by network formation crosslinking with the use of polyols. The reaction is permitted to continue until a viscous fluid is obtained. It is a thermoset. This means it hardens when mixed with a catalyst that creates a chemical reaction or when heat is applied. This plastic will degrade when exposed to moisture, by hydrolysis. Some of the factors that influence hydrolysis are permeability and solubility. This plastic is usually made by the artist, at work area for their specific needs. Styrofoam (polystyrene) is created by free radical polymerization in bulk or suspension. It is a thermoplastic. It is vulnerable to photooxidative degradation. This is when ultraviolet radiation is absorbed and cleavage occurs along main chain and phenyl ring creating carbonyl-group formation. This results in a creating a brittle plastic and a yellowing of the plastic. Acrylic (methyl-methacrylate) is polymerized by free-radical initiators in suspension or in bulk solution. It is a thermoplastic and amorphous. It is resistant to acid and environmental deterioration. It is susceptible to thermal degradation by depolymerization. This is where chain scission breaks backbone bonds to create free radicals or “nonchain scission involving the elimination of a small molecule from a substitute group and double-bond formation” (Fried, p.233). Epoxy is formed by a two step process, first by step growth polymerization, then the molecular weight is increased by a cure step, this is where the polymer is reacted with an anhydride. This plastic is a thermoset. Epoxy has high chemical, corrosion resistance, exceptional adhesion properties, and little shrinkage when curing. “Although epoxies are inexpensive and easy to process, they are brittle and have relatively high moisture absorption, which can affect the strength of the filler matrix interface”(Fried, p.277). Polyurethane is manufactured by step growth polymerization. It has high strength, resistance to gas and oil, but is vulnerable to microbial attack.

Artists use these plastics for a variety of reasons but some of the most important ones include the cost of the material, versatility, and weight. It can create life like creations or be as abstract as wanted. It can be transparent or opaque, dull to brightly color. In addition, no special tools are need to this form of art. Plastics use the same as metal and wood.

The artist at their work area, to their specifications, creates polyester and epoxy resin. For example may artist add fillers to change textures, appearance or color. Artists tend to like polyester resin for its ability to set under a more variable environment. Epoxy tends to be more expensive as well. One example of a use for these resins is in bonded bronze. This is where ground bronze is added to the polyester mix to give it the appearance of cast bronze. This technique can be seen in Lily Landis’s “Dynamics”. Another use is to use it in a mold to create a form. A mold is created form clay or another median; the epoxy is then brushed into the mold and allowed to dry. The finished cast can then be painted or what ever else is needed. Its realism can be quite striking as can be seen in some of the works by Angels Lane. “The appearance of the resin can change from that of a synthetic material to one that looks organic and natural, such as stone, clay, or metal” (Padovano, p.260) Styrofoam and polyurethane are used mostly for support (armatures) or for casting into other material. In use as an armature, the foam is moderately shaped and then glues together and then placed on an anchored metal work for support. As long as the sculpture is not very large, (one to two feet in height) it can support cement, plaster or clay. It is mostly used for modeling for a precast in metal. The advantage of this method is that model or piece remains light. An example of casting is in lost form casting. This is where a foam sculpture is set into a sand mold the sand is then packed tightly around the foam. Then a molten melt is poured into the sand mold. As the melt is exposed to the foam, the foam evaporates leaving only the metal. This can be seen in “Open circle” by Anthony Padovano.

Acrylic is also known by several trade names, Acrylite, Crystalite, Lucite and Plexiglas. It is well liked for sculpture because it is lightweight, rigid and shatter resistant. It is also transparent. It does however scratch easily. The plastic can be formed into any shape by heating it. Examples of its use can be seen in Harriet FeBland‘s “Mystic”, or in Malcolm Jones’s, “Micron series”.

Art restoration can be a wonderful instrument in the conservation of art. It can preserve works so that a painting or sculpture could last several generations. The negative aspect of restoration is when private companies become involved with the process. This trend may not always have the best interests of the artist or of the art in mind. Plastics can be seen in restoration processes as well.

A varnish is a solution, which can be made from natural or synthetic resins dissolved in organic solvents that will dry to add a thin protective film on a surface. Different varnishes have differing properties in gloss, durability, flexibility, and protection. Conservators are in a delicate balance of if a natural varnish should be removed, and if it is, should it be replaced with the old or a new synthetic varnish. Natural varnishes tend to yellow and darken with time. Synthetic tend not to yellow as quickly but may not offer the same aesthetic effect as the natural varnish would. Some synthetic varnishes are made from acrylic. Acrylic varnishes tend to have similar problem as acrylic paints. These will be addressed in the following paragraph.

Another is the use and the care for acrylic paintings. Introduced in the 1950’s it has dominated the arts and crafts market. There are two types for acrylic paints used, solvent based and water based. (Details about their manufacture and properties can be found the paints section of this report) Once an acrylic paint has dried it is not water-soluble. They dry quickly, in less then thirty minutes. Acrylic paints also tend to crack less then oil based paints. The surface of an acrylic painting tends to hold on to dirt and dust. This is because the acrylic paints used in the arts have a glass transition temperature near of below room temperature. This means they will be always soft. Some of the concerns that can appear with the use of acrylic paints are they will crack when exposed to sub-zero temperatures, they will also appear to have a “dirty” look to them and will yellow with time. Conventionally varnishes provide some protection from damage and dust. There is now apprehension whether to varnish acrylic paintings. Many artists have insisted that their painting remain unvarnished. Varnishing these works could create problems. One is that acrylic resin used in the varnishes has similar solubilities to that of the paint. So in the future if varnish ever has to be removed, the paint could be affected. Another is that natural varnishes will yellow with time, and the solvents used in their removal could again damage the painting.

Some of the best ways to avoid these particular problems is a little preventive measure. Control of the environment around the work and the elimination of natural light may prevent some of these problems. This may not be acceptable for some artists who may insist their work be shown in natural light. One way is in protective framing where the glass has an ultraviolet light filter and this can protect the piece from dirt and dust.

The down side of restoration is where exactly the line between art and business is drawn. One example comes from the restoration of the Sistine Chapel. Started in 1980 the fresco restoration was sponsored by a private corporation. The sponsor; Nippon Television Corporation (NTV); paid the Vatican somewhere between three and four million dollars for the opportunity. In return for this, the Vatican gave NTV worthwhile copyrights to the fresco for a period of time. ”In return, NTV received the lucrative copyright worldwide in all film, television and still photography during and for three years after the restoration, calculated section by section” (Beck, p.64). Added to this particular controversy was whether the secco media that was removed during this restoration was applied by the artist Michelangelo or applied during a previous restoration. Secco is a glue –based paint that could have been used in Michelangelo’s time. The problem is that during this restoration this layer was removed because it was believed to be part of a previous restoration. This was based on the opinion of art historians who worked for the Vatican. Outside critics believe that Michelangelo in fact applied this layer. From looking at before and after restoration, there are dramatic shadowing differences and you can see an immediate lighter tone to the work as shown in Beck’s book. (Beck p. 81, 1) Critics believe what is left by the restoration is not what was intended by the artist. The restorers have a different opinion. “They believe that the real Michelangelo now stands revealed for the first time” (Beck p. 65)

Another way plastics can be used in art is in paints. Paint consist of two main components: pigment, which is a finely dry powder that give the color in a painting, and medium or binder, which is a transparent, film-forming component into that the pigment is applied and stay to a surface. Pigment can be considered, as an objective of a painting and medium is a means to an end. The major functions of the binder occur during the drying process of a painting. In order to serve the pigment well and to preserve the life of a painting, all media have to meet certain requirements. These requirements are (1) the medium must have enough transparent in itself and not to change the color of the pigment, (2) the medium should not discolor with age, when pigment is ground and mixed with the medium, (3) the pigment should completely and evenly dispersed in the medium, (4) the medium should protect the pigment by forming a file while the paint go dries, (5) the film should allow for expansion and contracting of the paint course by temperature and humidity changes do that the paint will not crack and (6) the medium should be a strong binder and it should maintain the adhesion for unlimited time.

Traditional paints were used natural materials for medium such as oils and watercolors. However, the man-made paints (by chemical process) were also used as media. New type of binding materials became obtainable throughout the twentieth century. Beginning of the century, the binders (traditional binder which used oil) were used by most of the artists and interior and exterior of house paints. As the time processed, the house paints industrial quickly expanded and developed new paint using the synthetic resins as binders. The synthetic resins have a number of advantages over traditional oil paints, such as quick drying time and reduced yellowing with times. The synthetic resins created by chemical process are called polymerization. A polymer is chemically uniting a number of like molecules of any substance into larger molecules. The main ingredients of synthetic reins are acrylic and vinyl. Synthesis resin become available and has been wildly used throughout the twentieth century paints. These are nitro-cellulose (or pyroxylin), alkyd, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), and acrylic.

Nitro-cellulose and Pyroxylin consist of blends of different types of, synthetic materials, cellulose nitrate. Natural cellulosic materials, such as paper, wood pulp or cotton with nitric and sulphuric acid, form cellulose nitrate. First made nitro-cellulose paint were introduce to paint market in 1920s. The celluloid was the first plastic to be developed and was used extensively for early cinematic films. Nitro-cellulose well known as lacquers and widely used as car paint and on furniture.

Early synthetic lacquers contained nitro-cellulose or Pyroxylin. Synthetic lacquers were used as art form for longer than any other synthetic paint. Natural lacquers were obtained from the sumac tree and were first used in China at about 1027 B.C. It used to coat bowls, utensils and painting medium. Now a day, natural lacquers were impossible to find in western world because of it is only produced for local use in China, Japan, India and some other countries in the Far East. But synthetic lacquers are still available today.

The main reason for using synthetic lacquers by artists was it quick drying time, it will dry within two to five minutes and can be painted over at that time. Lacquers are resoluble and create a thin layer in every application at all time. A lacquer thinner is toxic, highly flammable and presents the danger of over inhalation of the vapors. Lacquers are not well matched with water or oil and should not used with or painted over water or oil media. Lacquers have tendency to become brittle and are not recommendable as an outstanding medium for painting. It also has serious disadvantages for painting because nitro-cellulose decomposes with time, does not produce adequate film. Its popularities in these industrial coating, automobile finishes, was due to rapid drying time than durability. Today, acrylic resins will be the best lacquers for fine arts.

Nitro-cellulose paint was notably used by a number of important artists, such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Jason Pollock. Siqueiros started to use nitro-cellulose or pyroxylin for car paint in late 1920s. He was claimed to be the first artist who used a synthetic resin based as a panting materials. Based on his experimentations, pyroxylin paints can use through unconventional way such as staining, dripping and pouring the fluid paint onto a support. In 1947, Jason Pollock used pyroxylin by dripping paint on the horizontally place canvas. At that time, his way of painting was different from the usual techniques of painting. He found the new ways to express the world by applied innovated methods in household and industrial enamels and use gloss enamel paint for the rest of his life. At the end of 1940s, alkyd resins were introduced to the industrial enamel and household paint formulation. However, nitro-cellulose is still to be the major resin for car spray paints.

Alkyd is a kind of polyester and form by reaction of polybasic organic acids and polyhydric alcohols that became an ester linkage. The first oil modified alkyd was introduced into the paint market was in 1927. Alkyd was not commercially used in United States until just before the World War II and was not available in Europe till the mid of 1950s. Alkyd need to customized with important amount of oil to make flexible enough to use as a binder. Usually need about 60% of oil by weight to modify the alkyd, therefore the name oil-modified alkyd come from. The drying time of the alkyd is very slow, even slower than the regular pure oil drying time; therefore it is not widely used in household painting. The replacement of the nitro-cellulose housepaint over alkyd was not success because short drying time is the main factor in housepaint and also only gave limited success in the artists’ paint market. Even though alkyd has longer drying time, its viscosity is relative higher than nitro-cellulose and the paint is easier to apply with a brush.

Pablo Picasso was the most famous artist who worked with housepaint. He used alky as in his paintings, boat painting and housepaint. Many artists used house paint rather than artist’s paint in artists’ paints because it is expensive and often unavailable in market. Another artist named Willem de Kooning found that housepaint was a suitable medium to express such expensive paint with experiment techniques and also used it in paintings. Other famous artists like Australian artist Sidney Nolan, Peter Blake, and Frank Stella used alkyd in their career.

Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) fist appear in paint market in 1930s. There are two kinds of PVA; the solution and emulsion form of PVA. It is important to distinguish between those because they have different handling properties. The solution form of PVA gets dry easily by evaporation of solvent and drying time is much fast than alkyd oil paints. Therefore, the dried film can re-dissolve in the same solvent that it was first dissolved in. Beginning of 1950s, PVA were widely used in market as a water-borne emulsion form of PVA. The emulsion forms of PVA are not dissolve in water but dispersed in water. When an emulsion form of PVA dried, the water first evaporated and it is done by the polymer fusing together and form the film. Once the film is dried it cannot be re-dissolve in water again. The major advantages of the emulsion are shorter drying time and the water is the main component in emulsions so that it can reduce the amount of organic solvent and strong odor. An important visual difference can be found between solutions and emulsion at their wet states and seen unpigmented. “ The solution form while the emulsion is white and opacity is the result of the inability of light to pass through the emulsion without being reflected and refracted by the polymer particles.”

A number of artists were used PVA emulsion in their paintings such as an American artist, Alfred Duca, Bridget Riley and Kenneth Noland. However, it did not give much success to those artists because of a very limited color range and the introduction of the quality acrylic emulsion to the artists.

Acrylic or Plexiglas becomes widely used in 1930s. Acrylic is the newest painting medium and is only water-based artists’ colors and medium that are flexible. The other aqueous media such as casein, egg tempera, and watercolors, have a tendency to chip and flak especially when applied heavily. Another feature of acrylic are dry very fast and its tenacious adhesiveness. Acrylic applications are waterproof when dry.

Those above properties make acrylic become the most important type of synthetic paint for artists’ use.

The first artist acrylic paint was known as Magna and is the best known of the acrylic solution range of paint. Phoplex was the one of the earliest acrylic emulsion and used as exterior house paint. The first artist acrylic emulsion paint was known as Liquitex. At first, Liquitex did not success in the market because it was thin and runny. However, many artists experiment with it such as Andy Warhol, Helen Frankenthaler. In the early 1960s, Frankenthaler’s gained success with acrylic emulsion and she continued to paint with it and that was her second trial of acrylic emulsion. A new formulation of Liquitex was introduced to the market in 1963. It has much thicker consistency and much closer to oil paint therefore; it rapidly became an established artists’ paint. Several properties of acrylic emulsion paints are not much different to the PVA emulsion such as “ they can be thinned water when wet, but cannot be re-dissolve in water once dried.” An artist named David Hockney said, “the acrylic paint can apply more thinly and efficiently.” And his oil paintings were characterized by variations in the paints’ thickness and different textures. The significant feature of acrylic was the ability of reduces wrinkles while the painting was drying. Today’s, most of the international artists’ paint companies are offer an assortment of acrylic media into tube colors and that can create a range of consistencies.

It can be seen that polymers can be used in many different applications in art from architecture to paints. It’s versatility and properties offer durable and low cost. These new materials are capable to go beyond the capacity of other substances. They can offer the artist or designer different avenues for creating and design. They will continue to be altered and reinvented to offer an aesthetically pleasing form that will last for some time.

[1] Celluloid is made from highly improbable fusion of cotton, nitric acid, and camphor.

[10] English designer primarily designs jewelers and silversmith; table accessories and furniture; trained in sculpture.

[11] Picture of Centre Georges Pompidou is shown in appendix 1

[12] Picture of IBM Pavilion is shown in appendix 1.

[13] German architect, see his Olympic Game Tent in appendix 1.

[14] Fuji Pavilion outlook is shown in appendix 1.